Examination of Curriculum and Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Examination of Curriculum and Assessment - Essay Example plan for learners in grade 3-5 the curriculum is well designed as it meets most of the requirements in terms of the objectives of the study the deliverables that are expected out of the learning process and the entire process it topped up with a comprehensive assessment, which will test the level of comprehension of the learners to ascertain if the objectives of the course were indeed met. The course is fashioned in the right manner and it will serve of great significance to the students since the knowledge that they will gain revolves around the daily experiences in their lives especially in the American society where the issue of immigration is a significant problem since there is an influx of a vast number of unregistered immigrants who illegal cross over the border to seek refuge in the country. Some of the learners may be experiencing this problem first hand thus, the lesson will tend to give them knowledge and facts about the issue while elaborating the background of the proble m and the potential solution that can be sought to solve it amicably (Hyland & University College, 2000). The immigration lesson plan is designed in a manner that it gives the learners an in-depth perspective on the topic by dispensing a pool of knowledge that is related to the issue of immigration in the world and particularly in America hence helps them to have a higher degree of risk and how experts use the very information and knowledge to formulate relevant policies that will help to deal and solve the problem amicably. Furthermore, the primary aim of any syllabus is to equip learners with the skills of critical thinking so as they can be able to utilize the knowledge they have acquired in class to devise a solution for the challenges that they face in their environment (Leyendecker & Akker, 2008). The immigration lesson touches on the social issues that are predominant in the American society, hence, the learners are privilege to utilize the skills of thinking critically and

The learning organization can never be achieved in reality Essay

The learning organization can never be achieved in reality - Essay Example Management theorists including Smith recognize that although there has been considerable debate about learning organizations ever since the emergence of the concept in the early 1990s,it has not been easy to cite examples of such organizations in real life. Smith (2001a) therefore is of the opinion that the concept of the learning organization may be too idealistic to be translated into reality; similarly, theorists such as Jashapara (1993) have metaphorically equated the struggle to become a learning organization with 'a quest for the Holy Grail'. This paper first reviews, summarizes and explains available literature on the subject of learning organizations and further attempts to determine whether such an organization is in reality achievable or not.The concept of the learning organization was pioneered and popularized during the 1990s by Peter Senge through his book The Fifth Discipline which was first published in the year 1990 (Smith, 2001b). The premise behind the theory of lea rning organizations is that in the rapidly changing world; where today's new discovery may be obsolete tomorrow, only those succeed who are 'adaptive' and 'flexible' (Smith, 2001) and Senge (1990a, p. 4) believes that this could only happen when organizations 'discover how to tap people's commitment and capacity to learn at all levels'. Senge (1990a, p. 3) views learning organizations as those where people continually strive to broaden the horizons of their capacity for the achievement of desired results, where innovative and out of the box thinking is encouraged and cultivated, where team work and collectivism is valued and 'where people are continually learning to see the whole together'. Senge believes that true learning enables both organizations and individuals to re-invent themselves and thus argues that survival alone is not the objective for learning organizations. He goes on to distinguish between 'adaptive' or single-loop learning and 'generative' or double-loop learning, and explains that where 'adaptive learning' is that which is necessary for mere survival, learning organizations are those which combine adaptive learning with 'generative learning', i.e. learning which enriches the ability to create (1990a, p. 14). Evolution of the Concept of the Learning Organization Rowden (2001), in an effort to trace the learning organization to its founding disciplines recognizes that the concept of the learning organization is not new and can trace its roots in organizational learning (Argyris & Schon, 1978) as well as being derived from action learning (Revans, 1983). Further, the learning organization concept is found to be rooted in organizational development specifically in 'action research methodology' and organic organizational theory. The concept is based most specifically on systems theory (Senge, 1990a) whereas its application to business has been more of an evolutionary outcome of strategic management (Fiol & Lyles 1985; Hosley et al. 1994), which in turn has over the years realized that the fundamental source of strategic change is in fact organizational learning (DeGeus 1988; Jashapara 1993). Rowden (2001) further notes the opinions of thinkers Senge (1990b) and Stata (1989) that the practical application of the notion of the learning organizatio n began with the increased emphasis on continual quality improvement in the recent past. Characteristics of Learning Organizations Senge (1990a) identifies the five building blocks of the learning organization and calls them its 'component technologies', which are systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, building shared vision and team learning. Similar thinking is echoed by Watkins & Marsick (1993) and Rowden (2001), who agree that learning organizations share certain key characteristics. They provide learning opportunities to

Debate between a chinese Qing official and japanese meiji official Essay

Debate between a chinese Qing official and japanese meiji official concerning their policy toward the european influence and aggression in east - Essay Example The Western countries exercised hegemonic ambitions and even fought among themselves for prized colonies as their possessions. This period also saw two contrasting approaches in how to deal with the new world order. China had been a regional power for several millennia at around this time and saw no need to modernize itself. It prided itself on its technological, scientific, and military advances, discoveries, inventions, and innovations and thereby did not feel threatened by the growing influx of Western influence into Asia. China got complacent due to this imperial hubris and so did not take the appropriate steps to turn back European aggression into East Asia. Japan before the Meiji Restoration (September 1868 to July 1912) had been always a country that was mainly agricultural (poor), beset with local wars (due to the feudal system in which samurai clans had held attachment to their ancestral lands), weak militarily, and little or no technological development to speak of. Young reformers during the onset of the Meiji era saw Western expansionism as a threat and acted accordingly. They introduced reforms to the countrys political and social systems by adopting Western ideas to modernize Japan. China for several centuries had gotten used to being the regional power in the central Asian region. It had attained a high degree of development in its civilization by a number of world firsts, such as the civil service system, the invention of gunpowder, a unique system of writing, and an imperial system of highly-regarded examinations for entrance to government service. Its Confucian values and centralized, bureaucratic government allowed it to control large tracts of lands and its tributary system allowed it to collect raxes from the neighboring countries to help support its government bureaucracy and imperial treasury. In other words, the high civilization of China was attained without any significant external help or

Developing a Philosophy, Goals, and Objectives Term Paper

Developing a Philosophy, Goals, and Objectives - Term Paper Example tatement and it points out the principles and attitudes that guide decision making, then the health centers philosophy should read: We recognize the needs of our poor and diverse community and offer care reverential of our clients traditions, culture, economic status, and religious conviction. According to Kenny (2012, p. 43), "In practice, organizational objectives are what the organization wants from its key stakeholders". The major stakeholders of Mountain View Health Center include patients, the community, and community based organizations (Laureate Education, 2013b). In this respect, the objective should read: To create a health care delivery system that encourages and supports high quality and affordable care to the community and migrant workers. On the basis of the needs of the community and migrant workers, the goal should read: To recognize electronic medical records as a fundamental factor that could improve health care quality at lower costs. In terms of insights, I have learnt that achieving projected outcomes is dependent on the way goals and objectives are formulated and implemented. This is due to the fact philosophy, goals, and objectives of an organization provides direction (Lorenzi, 2011). In other words, the organization is able to identify areas to direct resources as well as attention in order to achieve the intended results. In a nutshell, organizational philosophies, goals, and objectives guides the decision making process as it helps the organization identify where to direct

Comparing Physiology Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Comparing Physiology Worksheet Essay In this assignment you describe and compare the circulatory, skeletal, and respiratory systems of sharks, iguanas, eagles, and humans. Answer each of the following questions in 25 to 50 words. Circulatory System Shark How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s circulatory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s circulatory system work? Iguana How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s circulatory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s circulatory system work? Eagle How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s circulatory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s circulatory system work? Human How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s  circulatory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s circulatory system work? What is similar in all of these circulatory systems? What is different in all of these circulatory systems? Respiratory System Shark How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s respiratory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s respiratory system work? Iguana How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s respiratory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s respiratory system work? Eagle How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s respiratory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s respiratory system work? Human How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s respiratory system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s respiratory system work? What is similar in all of these respiratory systems? What is different in all of these respiratory systems? Skeletal System Shark How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s skeletal system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s skeletal system work? Iguana How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s skeletal system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s skeletal system work? Eagle How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s skeletal system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s skeletal system work? Human How would you describe the structure and function of this animal’s skeletal system? Include any unique characteristics. How does this animal’s skeletal system work? What is similar in all of these skeletal systems? What is different in all of these skeletal systems?

The Social Model Of Disability Health And Social Care Essay

The Social Model Of Disability Health And Social Care Essay In this essay I will be looking at models of disability, focusing mainly on the social model of disability and drawing upon the academic writing of disabled people and others as well as looking at a case study of David; a fifty five year old male who was admitted to hospital six months ago from having being diagnosed with a mild stroke. I will then go on to discuss the social models relevance to the practice of therapists. Disability is a major issue faced by our society. An attempt to describe the term disability can be very challenging. At present, there is no legal definition of disability as described in the social model of disability. Under the Equality Act, (2010) a disabled person is described as someone with a physical or mental impairment that has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his/her ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities. This also covers people with progressive conditions such as HIV, cancer or Multiple Sclerosis, and those with hidden disabilities like dyslexia. There are two main models of disability, the medical model and the social model. The medical model of disability, sees disabled peoples inability to join in society as a direct result of having an impairment and not as the result of features of our society which can be changed (Swain, French, and Cameron, 2003).The World Health Organisation (1980) categorises disability into three main groups; Impairment, Disability and Handicap. They state impairment is different to disability, from this it is easy to see how people with disabilities might become stigmatised as lacking or abnormal. The medical model of disability, assumes that the first step solution is to find a cure or, using the World Health Organisation Classification (1980) to make disabled people more normal (cited in Reynolds,2005). When policy makers think about disability in this individual way they tend to focus on compensating people with impairments, for example, targeting specific benefits such as the Disability Living Allowance (1992) for those individuals and providing segregated special services for them. This model of disability has been criticised as it does not offer a realistic perspective from the viewpoint of disabled people themselves, disabled people can be led to believe that their impairments automatically prevent them from participating in social activities. This view was rejected by disabled people who then advocated a different way of looking at disability (Oliver, 1983). In 1983 lecturer Mike Oliver, proposed the social model of disability. He adapted the model from the Fundamental Principles of Disability published by the Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation (1975), where an impairment is defined as lacking all or part of a limb, or having a defective limb, organ or mechanism of the body and disability as the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by contemporary social organisation which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the mainstream of social activities.(Swain and Cameron,1999, p.69). Central to this model is the belief that individuals with disabilities have a right to access, belong to, contribute to, and to be valued in society. The social model focuses on the strengths, abilities, and experiences of people with disabilities. Supporting individuals with disabilities in this model does not mean helping them to become normal, but instead focuses on tackling the social or physical barriers the individual faces in daily living (Oliver, 1983). In contrast to other models of disability, the social model is based on knowledge of the experiences, views, and practices of people with disabilities. The model understands individuals with disabilities as experts on their own lives and as experts on disability; it does not necessarily see difference as problematic or necessarily negative. Oliver (2004) goes on to argue that people with disabilities have faced prejudice and discrimination, therefore those who support this model believe that attention should be focused on restructuring society, not treating the individual. The social model views disability as a consequence of structural, environmental and attitudinal barriers that prevent people with a disability or impairment from maximum participation in society (Oliver, 2004, cited In Swain, French, Barnes and Thomas, 2004). For example, short-sighted people living in the United Kingdom are not classified as disabled. Eye-tests and visual aids, which are available means that this impairment does not prevent them participating fully in life. If, however, they live in a third world country where such eye care is not available they are severely disabled. The inability to read, subsequently learn, and gather information would be considered as a severe impairment in any society. If we apply the social model to the case study of David: Adapting to life after stroke, we are able to identify hidden attitudinal barriers that may exist in support of the social model, in the way society may view individuals with disabilities as being dependant and an inability to function fully due to their impairment. An example of this is when David states sometimes in shops, if I struggle to find the right money or to put away change, I feel really patronised, he may also experience these as hidden barriers from family members, this is indicated when David states At times I think they get annoyed with me being slower than before. In addition to these barriers, David may also encounter structural barriers; this may prevent him from being able to continue drive after his stroke due to legislations in place whereby you are not allowed to drive for one month following the event. This is a legal requirement even if your symptoms have fully resolved. The Driving Vehicles Licensing Authority would need to be contacted if one month after the stroke you are still suffering from weakness of the arm or legs, visual disturbance, or problems with co-ordination, memory or understanding. (Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority, 2011). Other structural barriers in insurance policies mean David may also have to pay more for his car insurance due to suffering a stroke, this can be viewed as society penalising him for having a disability. Environmental barriers may also exist which prevent David using public transport to get to work. Oliver (1990) argues that the removal of these structural, environmental and attitudinal barriers will improve the lives of disabled people, giving them the same opportunities as others. For example in the case study, David was able to return to his job as a Health and Safety Advisor on a part time basis under the Employers and the Equality Act (2010) employers are required to make reasonable adjustments to their policies or practices. By making adjustments, employers are removing the barriers that disable according to the social model, they are effectively removing the disability. The strength of this model lies in its placing the responsibility upon society and not the individual. At the same time, it focuses on the needs of the individual whereas the medical model uses diagnoses to produce categories of disability, and assumes that people with the same impairment have identical needs and abilities. It also offers positive solutions that have been proven in the United Kingdom (Reynolds, 2005). The social model however has limitations. Firstly, Crow (1992) criticises the model for its failure to emphasize certain aspects of disability such as the pain of impairment, both physical and psychological. In other words, the struggle may be over for disabled people in terms of obtaining human rights but the personal struggle of just getting out of bed in the morning remains. This struggle means that no matter how accommodating society is for disabled people, disabled people will always be disabled people. Morris (1991, p.10) then goes on to argue While environmental barriers and social attitudes are a crucial part of our experience of disability and do indeed disable us to suggest that this is all there is, is to deny the personal experience of physical and intellectual restrictions, of illness of the fear of dying. Further criticisms made of the social model, is its failure to take into account that as the population gets older the numbers of people with impairments will rise and making it harder for society to adjust. Lastly, the models concepts can be difficult to understand, particularly by professionals in rehabilitation. These professionals have to be persuaded that their role must change from that of cure or care to a less obtrusive one of helping disabled people take control of their own lives (Morris,2004). If we look at the relevance of the social model in the practice of therapists; Occupational therapists and Physiotherapists working with people with disabilities would be able to align themselves to the model, by identifying barriers that may exist for the client and implement interventions to overcome these disabling barriers and promote social integration. Assessments based on the social model of disability do not ask What is wrong with this person? but instead ask What is wrong for this person? At the core of an assessment based on the social model of disability. (Morris, 2004, p.24). In the case study of David, he identifies fatigue and mobility as key areas he wishes to address with the help of therapists. A therapist may assess the client in their own environment whether that is in their home or work and then suggest adaptations such walking aids or assistive aids to help enable the client to carry out occupations while removing barriers in order to live a more independent life. In the case of Speech and Language Therapists they may work towards bringing about changes in the individuals environment in order to maximise the opportunities for communication. This might, for example, involve teaching carers how to adjust their language to suit the clients level of understanding, or use gesture in addition to verbal communication when conveying their message (Coles, 2001). The social model of disability is a key mechanism for ensuring that Social Care services and resources work in partnership with people who need support. Assessments should identify the barriers, external to the individual, which are getting in the way of human rights. The planning and delivery of services should be focused on tackling these disabling barriers. All of this opens up exciting possibilities of using public resources in ways, which really make a difference to peoples lives (Morris, 2005). To conclude, models of disability are tools for defining impairment and disability, and ultimately for providing a basis upon which government and society can devise strategies for meeting the needs of disabled people. They are a useful framework in which to gain an understanding of disability issues, and of the perspective held by those creating and applying the models. Previous models of disability were essentially devised by people about other people, however the social model of disability provides an alternative perspective from those who experience disability. The social model proposed by Oliver (1990) has played a key part in promoting ways of overcoming disabling barriers for disabled people and a move forward to empower those individuals to be apart society.One of the major criticisms that have made of the social model is its detachment with having to deal with of impairment and its experiences. It is important to acknowledge that therapists play an important role in overcoming disabling barriers and adopting a holistic approach to enable individuals to carry out everyday meaningful activities as well promoting social inclusion, through adaptations to their environment. Models of disability provide us with a continuum on changing social attitudes to disability and where they are at a given time. Models change as society changes; therefore, we should develop and implement various models, which will empower people with disabilities, giving them full and equal rights as others within their society. References Coles, J. (2001) The Social Model of Disability: what does it mean for practice in services for people with learning difficulties? Disability and Society, 16(4), pp. 501-510. Crow, L. (1992). Renewing the Social Model of Disability. Coalition pp.5-9. HM Government (2011) Directgov: Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (2011) Available at: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Motoring/DriverLicensing/MedicalRulesForDrivers/MedicalA-Z/DG_185787 [Accessed on 10 November 2011]. HM Government (2011) Directgov: Employers and the Equality Act (2010) Available at: (http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/Employmentsupport/YourEmploymentRights/DG_4001071) [Accessed: 5 November 2011]. HM Government (2011) Directgov: Disability Living Allowance (1992) Available at: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/MoneyTaxAndBenefits/BenefitsTaxCreditsAndOtherSupport/Disabledpeople/DG_10018702 [Accessed on 10 November 2011]. HM Government (2011) Directgov: Equality Act (2010) Available at: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/RightsAndObligations/DisabilityRights/DG_4001068 [Accessed: 5 November 2011]. Morris, J.1991: Pride Against Prejudice-Personal Politics of Disability, London: The Womens Press. Morris, J. (2004) Social Model Assessment Team Pilot Project Essex Social Services: Report of Evaluation. p24 [PDF online]. Available at: www.leeds.ac.uk [Accessed: 5 November 2011]. Oliver M (1983) Social Work with Disabled People. Basingstoke, Macmillan. Oliver, M. (1990) The individual and social models of disability. Available at: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disabilitystudies/archiveuk/Oliver/in%20soc%20dis.pdf 4 [Accessed: 5 November 2011]. Oliver, M. (2004) If I had a hammer: The Social Model in action. In Swain, J., French, S., Barnes, C. and Thomas, C. (eds) (2004) Disabling barriers enabling environments. 2nd ed. Los Angeles, SAGE Publications. Reynolds, F. (2005) Communication and clinical effectiveness in rehabilitation. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Swain, J. and Cameron, C. (1999) Unless otherwise stated: Discourses of labelling and identity in coming out. In Corker, M. and French, S. (eds) Disability Discourse. Buckingham: Open University Press. Swain, J., French, S. and Cameron, C. (eds) (2003) Controversial issues in a disabling society, London: Sage in Association with the Open University. Section B : word count 879 Juvenile Chronic Arthritis (JCA) is a condition, which causes pain and inflammation of the joints and bones. The main symptoms include pain, stiffness, restricted movements of the joints, swelling, and warmth and redness of the skin over the joint. About 12,000 children in the UK under the age of 16 have a form of Arthritis.(Arthritis care, 2011). The purpose of this leaflet is to provide information on support services available and coping strategies for Helen, a fourteen-year-old female who suffers from JCA. The leaflet focuses on three main support services which address the identified needs of Helen.The case study of Helen highlights swimming as a meaningful leisure activity, so one of the programmes offered in the leaflet is an Arthritis foundation aquatic programme, there is evidence based research to suggest swimming can help to ease stiffness, improve movement in joints, and strengthen muscles. The program incorporates the buoyancy of water and the soothing warmth of a heated pool to make a safe and ideal environment for relieving pain and stiffness (Arthritis, 2011). Other Programmes aimed at Helen and her family focus on teaching knowledge and skills to better manage JCA and providing the opportunity to meet others who share similar experiences. This acknowledges the need for support for the whole family, which is strength of the leaflet however a limitation is the lack of in depth information provided. The use of a case study of a teenager with JCA, is an effective way of providing reassurance and encouraging Helen to remain positive. Coping strategies are also included as a way of offering practical advice on how to manage JCA on a daily basis, and takes into account if reader is not ready join they can still take away some useful tips. An important factor in whether health information will appeal to this target audience is design (Houts et al 2006). According to Hoffman and Worrall (2004), a health education leaflet should be patient centred and designed with the principles of good health education material design in mind, including layout of both illustration and text. Often leaflets in clinical areas are ignored; however leaflets with pictures draw the attention of patients and encourage attention to the information contained within and as the leaflet selected is vibrant and colourful it catches the eye. There is a blue background for the leaflet, on which the text is placed on; this makes the black of the main body of the text stand out as well as the use of suitable images Helen can relate too. In terms of content of information, written material should contain accurate content and be written in a simple manner which can be understood easily. The front cover of a leaflet is particularly important as it is the main device used to initially attract the target audience (NHS,2003).To attract Helen to the leaflet an image of a group of teenagers is used for the cover as she would be able to identify more with as most leaflets on Arthritis have images of older people and can be off putting for a teenager. A logo is also used so it is clear to the reader who is responsible for producing the leaflets and if she wants to seek additional information then the logo will help her to remember the organisation. The heading If you are a teenager with Juvenile Chronic Arthritis, you are not alone is clear and written in a large front so it immediately addresses the target audience and provides reassurance. Bearing in mind that an average person will only look at a leaflet for a few minutes, this is very important as the information and the purpose of the leaflet comes across clearly and immediately on the front cover which is one of the main strengths of the leaflet. However, the contact details on the back of the leaflet with extra support services is not clear enough to the reader in regards to whom to contact if interested in joining the programme. The language used throughout the leaflet is simple in order to appeal to young teens, but a Flesch test has not been carried out to indicate this, as Standard texts should have an FK Grade level of about 7-8 which is similar to a reading age of 13-14 years, therefore suitable for the target audience. (Frances, 2005) NHS Toolkit for producing patient information (2003) recommends using a 14 point or larger for those with sight difficulties, therefore an Ariel 14 point sized font has been used in the main body of the text so that the leaflet is both clear and easy to read and a more bolder style of font is used for subheadings inside so it is more eye-catching. This takes into account the reader who has JCA may have deterioration in sight as one of the symptoms of their condition. To conclude, the overall content and presentation of the leaflet successfully addresses the needs of Helen, focusing on providing information on support services. The leaflet has been designed so it is not overly cluttered but provides basic information by including a case study, coping strategies and facts that may encourage her to join. However, Improvements can be made in the design layout and incorporating more depth of information.

Criminology Essays Left Realism Critique

Criminology Essays Left Realism Critique Left Realism Critique. Left realism emerged as an influential theory during the 1980s. Its drive was partly dissatisfaction with the dominant criminological perspectives of the time and partially attributable to the prevailing political climate. This essay will outline the emergence of left realism as a means of explaining its main principles. The discussion will also engage with the criticisms of left realism and identify the criminological perspectives with which it conflicts. An understanding of left realism cannot be gained without an awareness of the prevailing intellectual, ideological and political context that surrounded its emergence. Therefore, it is important to appreciate the background from which left realism emerged. In the period immediately preceding the genesis of left realism, the most prevalent and influential criminological perspectives were based largely upon Marxist theories based upon notions of utopianism that were increasingly coming to be viewed as irrelevant in light of the political ethos of Margaret Thatchers Britain (Jones: 2001, 245). In particular, left realists were extremely critical of the way that radical criminological theories presented a characterisation of criminals as political catalysts against bourgeois hegemony and therefore to attempt to explain criminal behaviour in terms of it being a revolution against the injustices imposed upon the majority of the population by the ruling classes (Moore, 1991). Radical criminological theory saw crime as a consequence of (real or imagined) economic deprivation and under-privilege. Left realists were opposed to this view which allocated responsibility for crime to the State, which was seen as an instrument of the ruling class designed to consolidate the position of the powerful and promote the interests of the rich and powerful, rather than with the individual offender. Left realists also objected to the characterisation of the offender as the victim of the labelling process; a view which was popular with symbolic interactionists who were providing a popular alternative voice to the radical criminologists during the late 1970s and early 1980s: For over two decades [criminology] has neglected the effect of crime upon the victim and concentrated on the impact of the of the state through the process of labelling on the criminalIt became an advocate for the indefensible: the criminal became the victim, the state the solitary focus of attention, while the real victim remained off-stage (Matthews and Young, 1986: iv). The rejection by left realists of these constructions of the offender demonstrated one of their central beliefs which was that the offender should be not be absolved of responsibility for his actions and that it was not appropriate to cast blame on either the institutional or structural nature of society as was the tendency of the radical and interactionist schools of criminological thought. Rather than concur with this characterisation, left realists saw criminals as well-socialised individuals who exercised conscious and rational choice in deciding to offend and who saw crime as a way of resolving their particular problems. For left realists, the problems that offenders were trying to solve came from the capitalist ideology that was predominant in 1980s society. Left realists saw this capitalism as producing egalitarian notions such as that of political equality and the deterioration of views that each individual had an immutable place in the social hierarchy that was pre-determine d at birth. With these views came feelings of deprivation amongst those who were not possessed of material wealth but who were desirous of the benefits that were enjoyed by other members of society. Left realists felt that these individuals would see criminal enterprise as a way of rectifying this perceived inequality and securing their access to the commodities of capitalist society which they craved (Hopkins Burke, 2005: 220). In this respect, left realism could be seen as promoting a return to traditional Marxist views whereby crime was seen as an individual response (by the offender) to structural inequalities created by those in power in society which actually was a counter-active diversion away from the real problems of the causes of these inequalities that could only be solved by political change. Left realism rejected the post-Marxist radical theories that characterised crime as a revolutionary endeavour. In their seminal work, Lea and Young (1984) depicted criminal behaviour as almost an amplification of capitalist normalcy. In other words, the dominant view in the 1980s was that of capitalistic self-advancement in which individual endeavours were rewarded with material gain. Lea and Young asserted that a significant percentage of criminals shared these beliefs and replicated what had become conventional social values based upon the value of individual (and self-interested) effort in a society based upon competition and motivated by material success. However, criminals did not channel their energy into legitimate pursuits such as the endeavour for advancement in employment or entrepreneurial success, preferring instead to pursue socially acceptable goals through illegitimate avenues (criminal activity). As such, left realism viewed crime as the expression of capitalist values but though non-conventional means. In one respect, left realists agree with radical theorists in that it is common ground that crime is a reaction to an unjust society (Lea and Young, 1984: 45). However, there is also disagreement in that, unlike radical criminologists, left realists do not believe that the criminal should not be blamed for responding by engaging in offending behaviour: Crime is one form of egoistic response to deprivation. Its roots are in justice but its growth often perpetrates injustice (Lea and Young, 1984: 72) This notion of crime as the illegitimate manifestation of capitalist values is one of the central principles of left realism. However, although crime is seen as a self-interested and individual enterprise, left realists also believe that crime is a group response rather than an individual decision. They believe that crime is an inevitable consequence of a social situation in which a particular group feels that it is subject to disadvantage such as in a situation whereby there is a common ideological drive to measure success in material goods but there exist barriers to the attainment of these goals for some members of society. In such a situation, particularly if there appears to be no way of circumventing the obstacles, crime is certain to result. One of the key criticisms that has been levelled against left realist explanations of crime and criminality is that its focus on economic deprivation explains only economic crime but does nothing to account for the other manifestations of offending behaviour that are prevalent in society. Left realism is prepared to counter this criticism by drawing upon strain theory (Merton, 1968) to explain how the exclusion from legitimate economic opportunity may result in financial crime to rectify the situation or violent crime as a vent for frustration at the denial of a seemingly equitable access to benefits and resources. This actually consolidates one of the key principles of left realism in that reliance is placed upon subculture theories to support the argument of left realism that those who are excluded from the benefits of mainstream society develop their own cultures, norms and principles and operate within these. Inevitably, for those excluded from legitimate avenues of enterprise, t his involves criminal behaviour (Young, 1975). One of the central principles of left realism was a conceptualisation of crime that did not take an offender-centred view. Young proposed a square of crime in which the four key components were the offender, the victim, the agencies of formal control (such as the police) and the agencies of informal control (such as other members of society). This was an important tenet of left realism because it challenged a major paradox within radical theories; that of the powerless working-class criminal driven to offending behaviour as a result of the oppression of the privileged classes. Lea and Young examined official crime statistics and victim report surveys (such as the British Crime Survey) and concluded that although members of the working class appear to commit a disproportionate amount of crime, they often target the other members of the working class as their victims. Left realism addressed the issue of the ordinary victim of crime and thus changed the emphasis within criminological th eory and, gradually, within the practices of the criminal justice system. In particular, the square of crime ensured that crime prevention strategies were evolved which took account of the contributions of each of the four factors: To control crime from a realist perspective involves intervention at each part of the square of crime: at the level of the factors which give rise to the putative offender (such as structural unemployment), the informal system (such as lack of public mobilisation), the victim (such as inadequate target hardening) and the formal system (such as ineffective policing) (Young, 1986: 41). This emphasises one of the main principles of left realism; the belief in a joined up approach to tackling the problems of crime. However, this multi-causal approach that takes account of a variety of factors in explaining criminality could be accused of borrowing from a range of sociological explanations of crime, such as strain and control theories, and amalgamating selected aspects of these and giving them a Marxist slant. It seems reasonable to state that there is nothing particularly new in left realism; it is a pragmatic restatement of a number of established criminological principles taken from a particular ideological perspective (Downes and Rock, 2003: 292). However, left realism did become influential in raising awareness of the plight of victims of crime thus negating their invisibility and overcoming their marginalisation. Lea and Youngs studies showed that official statistics gave an incomplete picture of the extent of victimisation and therefore presented an inaccurate impression of the nature and extent of criminal activity. For Lea and Young, victim studies gave a fair more comprehensive and accurate account of victimisation, firstly because they included information about crimes which had occurred but which victims may not have reported to the police and, secondly, because they were capable of analysis on the basis of geographic location thus giving a true impression of the localised nature of much criminal behaviour. One of the other most notable contributions of left realism to criminological theory that emerged from victim surveys is the recognition of fear of crime as a significant social problem that is just as in need of re solution as actual crime . By acknowledging the existence of victims of crime, left realists gave voice to notions of pre-emptive strategies to counteract attempts at criminal behaviour: The organisation of communities in an attempt to pre-empt crime is of the utmost importance (Lea and Young, 1984: 267). This emphasis on the community and its role and importance in combating crime typifies the principles of cohesion and inclusion that characterises left realism. At its core, left realism is seeking for realistic strategies that will have a quantifiable impact upon crime (and fear of crime) within communities, especially amongst the poor and disadvantaged who are the most frequent victims of crime. This has been said to be a central component of contemporary left realism (Matthews and Young, 1992: 2). Notwithstanding this emphasis on the prevention of crime, it is a fundamental principle of left realism that the attainment of justice is more important than controlling crime. As such, the police play a key role in maintaining social control by establishing, maintaining and nurturing good community relations so as not to alienate the populace to whom they should be fully accountable (Kinsey, Lea and Young, 1986). Many of the criticisms levelled against left realists were voiced by the radical theorists of whom the left realists themselves were so critical. For example, Lea and Young criticised radical theorists for their excessive concentration of corporate crime and their marginalisation of real crime that affects ordinary people even though they accept that corporate crime is worse than working-class crime. Radical theorists counter by questioning why Lea and Young are prepared to view working-class crime as more serious merely because it is what ordinary people fear. Surely, it is argued, the actuality of crime is more potent and more serious than the fear of falling victim to a crime that may never occur. Left realists have no effective rejoinder for this criticism, other than to draw attention to the way in which fear of crime can have a real and negative impact upon ordinary members of society, by preventing them from going about their ordinary business, for example, or avoiding particu lar activities or places (Young, 1999). The multi-causal approach of left realism can also be criticised for failing to explain all forms of criminal behaviour. Feminist criminological theorists have also been critical of left realism in its tackling both of female criminal behaviour and of its failure to explain crimes that are traditionally seen as targeting women, such as rape. Just as it could be criticised for failing to provide an adequate explanation of different types of criminal behaviour, left realism can be accused of an overly one-dimensional focus on young, male, working-class criminal behaviour to the detriment of offenders from other socio-demographic backgrounds. Female criminality is largely unaddressed and, moreover, exposes a central weakness in one of the key principles of left realism; the reliance on relative deprivation as an explanation of criminal behaviour. For example, Lea and Young assert that crime results from the exclusion of a particular group from legitimate opportunities for success and material gain. In light of this, it would be expected that female criminality, which was always extremely low, would decrea se even further as women gained greater equality in the workplace as this would ensure that they were less excluded from legitimate avenues of success. However, the converse proved to be true and the greater prominence of women in the workplace was mirrored by a growth in female offending; an outcome that is directly contrary to the explanation of criminal behaviour propounded by left realists (Smart, 1989). Equally, it is difficult to see how left realism can explain sexual crimes against women unless this falls within the same category as violent crimes that are the result of frustration following a failure to achieve legitimate success. This seems an extremely tenuous argument for such complex crimes and, in any case, left realists have tended not to engage with the issue of rape to any great degree thus the explanation remains speculative (Heidensohn, 1985). Overall, it is clear that the emergence of left realism was both a product of the prevailing political climate and a strong influence on the social and political development of more cohesive approaches to crime control and prevention that drew together a range of players in the criminal justice process rather than focusing exclusively on the offender. As a theoretical perspective, it expanded the focus of criminological enquiry and moved beyond the dominant ideology of the 1970s and early 1980s. As such, its contribution to criminological debate cannot be under-estimated. However, it can be criticised as a rather narrowly-focussed theory that fails to provide an adequate explanation of the full gamut of criminal behaviour. It has, however, provided a building block upon which other theories can build a broader and more wide-ranging explanation of criminality. 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